Intelligence by Notasha Brooks

Theoretical Perspective on Intelligence

Spearman’s
Charles Spearman proposes that intelligence consists of a single pervasive reasoning ability (a general factor) that is used on a wide variety of tasks and several narrowed abilities (specific factors) in executing particular tasks. Spearman believes that children’s performance on any task depends on the general factor and any specific factor that the task involves. From Spearman perspective, measures of different language skills like: vocabulary, word recognition, reading comprehension etc. are all hugely connected because they all reflect both general intelligence and the same specific factor, which is verbal ability.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of cognitive abilities
Raymond Cattell, expanding on Spearman’s idea, found evidence for two different components of general intelligence. Firstly, he explains that children are some what different when it come to fluid intelligence, the ability to acquire knowledge quickly and adapt to new situations effectively. Secondly, children are different in crystallized intelligence, the knowledge and skills they have accumulated from their experiences, schooling and culture. Cattell states that fluid intelligence is largely the result of inherited biological factors, and crystalize intelligence depends on both fluid intelligence and experiences and so is influenced by both heredity and environment.

Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner believes that people have at least eight different abilities; therefore, he created eight stages of development.

• Linguistic intelligence – Ability to use language effectively. (e.g. making persuasive arguments.)
• Logical-mathematical intelligence – ability to reason logically, especially in mathematics and science. (e.g. solving mathematical problems quickly.)
• Spatial intelligence – ability to notice details in what one sees and to imagine and manipulate visual objects in one’s mind. (e.g. drawing a visual likeness of an object)
• Musical intelligence – ability to create, comprehend, and appreciate music. (e.g. composing a musical work)
• Bodily- Kinesthetic intelligence – ability to use one’s body skillfully. (e.g. dancing)
• Interpersonal intelligence – ability to notice subtle aspects of other people’s behaviors. (e.g. correctly perceiving another’s mood)
• Intrapersonal intelligence – awareness of one’s own feelings, motive, and desires. (e.g. identifying subtle differences in one’s experiences of such similar emotions as sadness and regret)
• Naturalist intelligence – ability to recognize patterns in nature and differences among natural objects and life-forms. (e.g. identifying members of particular plant of animal species.

Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence
Mr. Robert Sternberg is of the belief that intelligent behavior emerges from a perfect equilibrium and requires functioning harmony between practical abilities, analytical abilities and creative abilities. To briefly put these into perspective, exercising our practical abilities includes application of and knowledge and skills previously acquired, to everyday situations. In terms of our analytical abilities, we should be able to evaluate, compare and contrast information. for example, weighing the pros and cons about what college to attend or something as simple as picking apart a question from your midterm exams. Creative abilities require us to utilize our imagination to invent new experiences by combining ideas within a new situation. Three additional factors that helps cements the theory of successful intelligence are role of the environment, role of prior experience and role of cognitive process.

Distributed intelligence
Roy Pea and David Perkins discovered that intelligent behavior solely depends on physical, social and cultural support. People can distribute there thinking in three of the following ways. First, the use of technology to handle large amount of information. Second, working alongside others to explore new idea and solving problems. Third, thinking about different circumstances you encounter using the various devices your culture provides.

Tests of intelligence

Intelligence tests are used to distinguish between children with special needs of whom might be better benefited from a customize curriculum and children with exceptionally high abilities who require more in-depth classwork to better advance their cognitive abilities. A few examples of the different types of intelligent tests that are available today are: Wechsler intelligent scale for children, Stanford – Binet intelligence scale, universal nonverbal intelligent test, and the cognitive assessment system.

• Wechsler intelligence scale for children is used with children ages 6 – 16. It consists of 15 subtests where scores are combined to determine a total score, known as a full-scale IQ.
•  Stanford– Binet intelligence scales can be used with children 2 years old, adolescents and adults. This test requires multiple task (e.g. defining vocabulary words, finding logical inconsistencies in a story, or interpreting proverbs) as well as objects and pictures (e.g. remembering a sequence of objects, copying geometric figures, or identifying absurdities in pictures.)
• Universal nonverbal intelligence test is for children ages 5 – 17. It consists of six subtests which comprise of memory or reasoning regarding visual stimuli. This test is useful for children who have hearing impairments or language-related learning disabilities.
• The cognitive assessment system is based on the ides that cognitive processes identified in neurological research are the basis for intelligence.

Dynamic Assessment

Dynamic assessment is the process of assessing children’s ability with an adult assistance. For instance, it determines tasks that children are not able to do on their own. It provides in-dept and practice in behaviors and cognitive processes related to the task. Determining the extent to which each child has benefited form the instruction. Dynamic assessment is a new approach for assessing intelligence; however, it has proven to be more optimistic than traditional measures of assessing intelligence.

Developmental assessments with infants and young children

Assessing infants and young children can be challenging because infants may be fussy, sleepy, or even afraid of the person conducting the assessment. Also, young children have very short attention span and lose interest in the test’s questions. Because of these setbacks, assessment for infant and young children are not always reliable. Even so, teachers and other professionals need to monitor young children’s cognitive development. A few of the ways these tests are conducted are as follows:

• Assessment with infants and toddlers – infants are assessed as soon as they are born in the hospital. Doctors check their color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone and breathing. Each of these aspects gets a rating between 0 and 2.
• Assessment with preschoolers – the third edition of the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence is another frequently used assessment for young children. It is used with children ages 2 to 7.

Bioecology of intelligence

The bioecology of intelligence have several different influences that contribute to the genetic profile of children. These include: hereditary influences, environmental influences and demographic factors.

Hereditary Influences:

• Twin Studies – The name sates what this does, the study of monozygotic and dizygotic twins (identical and fraternal) and it shows how heredity affects IQ. Identical twins show a higher level of intelligence more than fraternal twins because they begin as a single fertile egg which then separates. So even if one sibling my get adopted and raised by different parents, the twin will still show similar IQ levels.
• Adoption studies – When a child is adopted, their IQ level will still be similar to their biological parents, this is because intelligence is mainly transferred through genetics.

Environmental Influences:

• Home Environment – Parents who interact with their children frequently and provide advance learning tools, activities, reading materials, teach motor skills, provide an opportunity for the child to developed intelligently. Studies have shown that children who had a somewhat strict learning regime at home scored higher on IQ tests than children who hailed from homes where parents who did not provide proper learning tools.
• Formal Schooling – Early introduction and regular attendance to schools have a considerably higher IQ than children who did not start early or attend regularly. Same applies to children who dropped out of school compared to the ones that remained enrolled.
• Early nutrition – Nutrition plays a highly vital role in the development of a child’s intelligence. During pregnancy and even afterwards (early years), lack of nutrition can limit neurological development and has adverse long-term effects on learning abilities.

Demographic Factors:

•  Socio economic – Lack of resources play a major role in a child’s intelligence level. Studies shows that persons who are below the poverty line or just above tend to have children who show a lower level of intelligence than their counterparts who may be of a better economic standing.
• Gender – Findings show that there is not a great disparity of intelligent when it comes to male or female. However after puberty the sexes show more individualistic traits in that,  boys are normally better at task including a higher level of mathematical thinking and girls are more better with reading and written materials.

Exceptionalities in intelligence

Some children and adolescents have exceptional abilities and other have significant cognitive delay. These exceptionalities are known as giftedness and intellectual disabilities.

• Children who have gifts and talent – someone who is gifted and talented has unusually higher intellectual abilities than that of their counterparts. Gifted and talented children need to be challenge in the classroom in order to build on their intelligence.
• Children with intellectual disabilities – someone with intellectual disabilities express significant developmental delays. Children with developmental delays usually perform poorly on intelligence test.  

 

Source: Child Development and Education by Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod – Prentice Hall, 6th edition, 2010